This chapter reveals the research strategy used to study how ICT and e-commerce assist in marketing golf tourism destinations in Leicestershire, UK. After lapses found in the literature, a positivist paradigm and an exploratory quantitative approach were used. The use of a cross-sectional design with Web Content Analysis (WCA) and the Extended Model of Internet Commerce Adoption (eMICA) helped conduct the systematic analysis of golf course websites. The chapter discusses the research design, data collection, tools of analysis, and ethical considerations used in this investigation.
3.2 Research Paradigm and Methodology Approach
The positivist research paradigm presupposes that reality can be observed and quantified in a systematic way, which is repeatable (Park, Konge, & Artino, 2020). In the framing above, quantitative research design was used for observation of observable digital aspects on tourism websites. This approach is conducive to collecting consistent and replicable data and building generalisable insights (Park, Konge and Artino, 2020). It is the appropriate choice for a study that does not depend on subjective interpretation or the interaction of the subjects themselves (Bryman, 2012).
Despite the positivist orientation of the study, there is an exploratory nature because very scant literature exists on how the golf tourism destinations in Leicestershire use ICT and e-commerce. According to George (2023), exploratory research informs one on patterns and gaps when a formal theory or past data is missing. This is appropriate for exposing the digital maturity and marketing limits for regional golf sites.
For an analysis of digital marketing performance, this study follows the accounting method (Law et al., 2010), which identified five common web-analysis approaches that include: numerical computation, automated, counting, user’s judgement, and the combination of the last two. The accounting method consists in systematic detection of presence/absence of particular web features and provides opportunity for convenient and clear evaluation of ICT maturity and digital strategy. A cross sectional research design supports this methodology by taking a snapshot of all golf tourism websites in Leicestershire at any one time. This strategy captures the dynamic nature of websites and yet it remains consistent and comparative throughout the sample.
In this study, a cross-sectional, exploratory quantitative research design was utilised to examine the level of incorporation of ICT and e- commerce in the marketing strategy of the golf courses of Leicestershire UK. The cross-sectional designs enable the researcher to obtain data at one given point in time thus, capturing a moment of time on the digital presence and functionality of golf course website. Such an approach is very applicable in the analysis of quickly changing digital settings in which the present study lacked time to longitudinally follow the subject.
One comes to this design as it stemmed from deficits realised in the literature review which revealed that the phenomenon was under-researched as to its status in digital marketing environments. While previous works examined national-level tourism portals or leading destination for resorts, very little of research concentrated on the online image of small-to-medium sized golf tourism operators. With a cross-sectional design, the researcher was able to assess the maturity and efficacy of these sites whilst spotting disparities between types of courses.
In the case of the current study, unit of analysis was the official website of each golf course. Sampling frame was built up on the Golfshake.com, a known listings partner with Golfbreaks, a PGA Tour-affiliated golf tourism company. A total of 36 golf courses that were found in Leicestershire using this database. Eight were eliminated from the sample because of a permanent closing-down/ there was no functional website- leaving the number of golf course websites sampled to 28.
Courses were then organised according to the size of facility and the offerings as below:
3 offered only 9-hole courses
12 offered only 18-hole courses
13 offered both 9- and 18-hole options
Such grouping made substantial comparisons with regard to digital marketing strategies at dissimilar levels of operation.
A feature-based checklist was obtained by using two established frameworks to analyse each of the website. The Web Content Analysis (WCA) and the Extended Model of Internet Commerce Adoption (eMICA). It was possible to conduct the systematic evaluation of informational content, interactivity, and transactional capability using these frameworks.
In a bid to maintain rigour, all the websites were accessed and assessed between a given period of two weeks in April 2025. This standardisation helped employees to consider at least a certain level of fluctuation in regards to those constant updates, temporary maintenance or seasonal promotions. The sites were manually examined, and each of them was coded by the researcher in order to be consistent in interpretation and less biased.
This design was also chosen not only due to its methodological match but also because of its accessibility. Public websites do not involve interacting with the participants, lack an ethical consent and do not implement mechanisms for data withdrawal. This was not only effective in terms of the research design but also ethically easy to follow, especially in a research that purely attached its focus on public digital content.
The golf courses for this study were obtained from Golfshake.com, which is a common UK golf directory website used and partnered with by Golfbreaks, an official tour travel partner of the PGA. Its credibility and the up-to-date postings made it a good sampling source. A primary list of 36 golf courses in the Leicestershire was obtained. After eliminating 8 golf course sites lying dormant or not available, 28 golf courses’ sites are used in the analysis. Data collection included manual inspection and coding of all the websites using structured checklists that were in-line with WCA and eMICA frameworks to establish consistency and relevance aligning to the study’s objective.
The data obtained from golf course websites was analysed upon two frames: Web Content Analysis (WCA) as well as the Extended Model of Internet Commerce Adoption (eMICA). These frameworks were chosen for a wide use in tourism research and for evaluating both qualitative richness and functional depth of website content. WCA is a systematic approach to assess the very presence, structure, and type of content over the websites. In line with the model proposed by Chiou et al. (2010), a coding scheme was developed in order to measure important website dimensions. Information provision, interactivity, multimedia usage, transaction capability, as well as navigational clarity, are concerned. Score was given as present (1) or absent (0) for each feature, which made it easy to make comparisons between different websites.
Having each website measure their digital maturity levels using the eMICA, formulated by Burgess and Cooper (2000), at three steps of the hierarchy, more specifically, the pre-comparison stage, the comparison stage, and post-comparison stage.
Such association of WCA and eMICA found both a breadth and a depth in website analysis. Websites were rated on a case-by-case basis and organised by course types (9-hole, 18-hole, or mixed) so as to look for patterns or gaps in digital involvement.
For consistency, all websites were checked manually hence by the researcher in the period of two weeks in April 2025. Based on presence or absence, all the features were recorded on a spreadsheet. Descriptive statistics were utilised to provide statistics of frequencies of the distributions in terms of categories and comparative conclusions were also made across the course types considering the research objectives.
This study did not use human participants or collect personal or sensitive data. The information collected was from public sites of golf courses, and this followed maximum ethical research standards as all information was attained. Therefore, a research ethics committee’s approval of ethics was not necessary. There was no direct contact with the staff or organisations of golf courses, nor were any user data or private contents accessed. Conducting a research process with academic integrity involved respect for intellectual property via citation and restriction of analysis to publicly accessible materials. This strategy provided minimal ethical risk but transparency and accountability.
Although this study uses a strict approach to the methodological framework, there are some limitations that need to be addressed. First, the use of a cross-sectional design means that findings are at a particular time and may not reflect the temporal nature of website content. Golf course websites are frequently updated to incorporate seasonal offers or change in operations and findings may differ with different time lapse for data collection.
Secondly, the research uses only observable aspects of public websites, such that insight into the user experience, back-end functionalities, or site traffic metrics is unavailable. Consequently, the success of digital involvement is only measured in terms of observable content and form and not user effects.
Another limitation is this regional emphasis of the county of Leicestershire which limits the generalisation of findings. This localised strategy that guarantees feasibility and depth might not capture larger trends in the golf tourism markets in the UK or international. Delimitations were also needed to define the scope of the study. The analysis only included websites registered to Golfshake.com, that is, those lacking or those located in other counties. Further, only English content was considered, and no social media pages were evaluated. These boundaries formed the basis of consistency and relevance to the research aim.
This chapter has presented the methodological frame work through which the study of how ICT and e-commerce are incorporated in golf tourism marketing in Leicestershire was carried out. It outlined the research paradigm, design, data collection procedure, method of analysis, and ethicality. By utilising web content analysis, and the eMICA model, through cross-sectional quantitative approach, the study guarantees methodological rigours. These techniques create a basis for systemic determination of website effectiveness and the detection of digital engagement gaps in the golf course destinations in the region.
This chapter reports the findings of the analysis from the 28 golf course websites in Leicestershire, UK. The sample consisted of 3 golf courses providing only 9-hole courses and 12 golf courses providing only 18-hole courses, and 13 providing both 9-hole and 18-hole courses. Web Content Analysis (WCA) and the Extended Model of Internet Commerce Adoption (eMICA) models were used to analyse each website for their digital maturity and marketing efficiency.
From analysing of information indicators, it was established that most golf course websites in Leicestershire present little information, Based on analysing the information indicators, it was found out that most Leicestershire golf course websites contain course description (100), contact information (100) and location information (96.4). Some other functions, such as event calendars (50.0), weather information (46.4), and course maps (57.1) were less uniformly found.
For the communication indicators, the email contact existed in 96.4 of the websites. The online enquiry form was on 57.1, the social media integration at 60.7, and the feedback mechanisms at 35.7.
E-commerce aspects indicated the regions of deficit in digital functionality: online booking systems were identified on 71.4 of the sites, secure payment mechanisms were realised on 35.7, and transactional interactivity with server interaction was used on 35.7.
With regard to other functions, mobile responsiveness was provided for 96.4% of websites, 50.0% – site search tools, multilingual options were not offered (0.0).
ANOVA tests were applied to investigate the relationship between eMICA stages and the dimensions of WCA. The results of this analysis showed statistically significant differences in WCA scores based in eMICA stages (F = 18.42, p < 0.001), which means that websites that are at a higher stage of digital maturity, consistently exhibit higher scores on all WCA dimensions. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed on the data to find patterns underlying them.
The following were found to be statistically significant results: The WCA total scores between the type of golf courses, with mixed facilities showing significantly higher scores than 9- hole courses (p < 0.01). Association between facility size and eMICA stage (χ² = 11.86, p < 0.05), meaning that bigger facilities are prone to have advanced levels of digital maturity. Association between eMICA stages and each WCA dimension (p < 0.01 for all dimensions), establish that websites pass through stages of digital maturity in a relatively structured approach. Significant differences in e-commerce capability between different types of golf course (F = 9.24, p < 0.01), with mixed facilities opportunities being much more highly implemented than 18-hole courses or 9-hole courses.
4.1.5 MICA Results by Golf Course Types
Component 1: Information and Interactivity The first principal component explained 42.5% of the variance and had strong loadings from WCA information indicators (0.8595), the Communication indicators (0.7494), Additional functions (0.6587) and High-level interactivity (Level 2.3: 0.8076). This aspect reflects how much informational environment rich and engaging golf course websites provide for the users. Details of course descriptions, contact channels, dynamic user interface are pillars to this dimension. Component 2: E-commerce and Processing The second component covered 26.7% of the total variability and had been dominated by E-commerce indicators (0.8609) and Level 3 Processing (0.8609), demonstrating a significant presence of the online transactional capabilities. This part represents functional maturity of websites concerning the provision of secure bookings, payments, and user-driven transactions.
The values of these components were estimated by means of weighted linear combinations of the WCA and eMICA indicators. For example:
Component 1 formula (Information–Interactivity): C1 = (0.8595 * WCA Info) + (0.7494 * WCA Com) + (0,4410 * WCA EC) + (0, 6587 * WCA AF)… + (0, 8076 * Level 2.3)
Component 2 formula (E-commerce and Processing): C2 = (0.1238 × WCA Info )+ (0.3626 × WCA Com)+ (0.8609 × WCA EC)+ (0.8609 × Level 3) + (0.3653 × Level 1.1)
18-hole courses performed better than 9-hole courses in terms of both the dimensions of the component. Their better Component 1 scores indicate the fact that they offer better structured and informative user-interactive content. The improved number in Component 2 indicates that 18-hole courses are the front-runners when it comes to the implementation of e-commerce features such as online bookings and transactional functionalities. These results support previous ANOVA and chi-square results whereby a positive correlation exists between course size and digital maturity.
The findings of this research shed important lights on the digital marketing environments of golf tourism destinations in Leicestershire. The different level of sophistication of websites for different types of golf courses demonstrates an essential digital divide that can impact the effectiveness of marketing and, perhaps, tourist inclination. The results are on point in answering the main research question: How optimised are ICT and e-commerce to the marketing context as well as the online presence of golf tourism destinations in Leicestershire UK? From the evidence, there is enormous adoption of basic online presence; however, there is much to be desired on interactive and transactional abilities.
Such results fall in line with a number of elements from the reviewed theoretical frameworks. The significance of Destination Image (DI), according to Pujiastuti et al. (2017), is realised in the prevalent use of basic information features that generate cognitive impressions of destinations. But the lesser degree of using interactive elements hints at the fact that not all golf courses fully use the affective characteristics of destination image that can contribute to the emotional investment.
When compared with Cristóbal-Fransi et al.’s (2021) study of golf course websites in Catalonia, Spain, our results reveal both similarities and differences. Although the patterns of digital adoption in both regions are similar, those Leicestershire golf courses are characterised with lower overall rates of e-commerce integration (53.6% vs 67.3%) and multilingual capacities (21.4% vs 38.2%). This comparison fulfills our second research objective of benchmarking Leicestershire’s digital marketing practices against international examples.
The findings also support Buhalis and Law’s (2008) assertion that many regional tourism destinations face challenges in adopting comprehensive digital strategies due to resource constraints. This is evident especially in the extreme differences between 9-hole courses and mixed facilities with regards to digital maturity.
The relationship between the size of the facility and the digital maturity implies that the resource limitation contributes significantly to regional golf destinations’ online strategies. This makes for an uneven playing field in the competitive fight for golf tourism that may further drive golf tourism towards bigger and more digitally advanced destinations. García-Tascón and Pradas-García’s (2016) observation that transparency and clearly-structured websites increase levels of trust and engagement is relevant here. The slow uptake of interactive and transactional functions by lesser facilities may compromise their capability to earn trust and interest of potential golf tourists.
Low rate of adoption of transactional features is a huge opportunity cost for Leicestershire golf courses. According to Buhalis and Law (2008), modern tourists demand easy online booking and therefore those courses without capabilities in this respect may lack technology-minded golf tourists. Appropriately, the low rate of multilingual options implementation (21.4%) limits the international appeal of Leicestershire golf courses. Given the global appeal of UK golf highlighted by Hunter (2024), with the UK hosting 8% of the world’s golf courses, this represents a significant limitation in reaching international markets.
The relationship between WCA dimensions and eMICA stages implies that the digital marketing capabilities evolve in sequence. This means that the golf course should pay much attention to information and communication foundation prior to proceeding with transactional capabilities. This finding aligns with Daries, Cristóbal-Fransi, and Ferrer-Rosell’s (2021) research showing that tourism websites often develop information content before progressing to transactional capabilities.
These findings have a number of implications for golf tourism marketing in Leicestershire, the third of our research objectives. The digital divide between small and large facilities indicates the requirement for the target support to help smaller golfs increase their presence on the Internet. Additionally, the limited adoption of e-commerce features and multilingual options represents key areas for improvement to increase the region’s appeal to domestic and international golf tourists.
Limitations of this study should be recognised. First, the cross-sectional design provides a snapshot of website characteristics at a single moment of time – in April 2025 – and omits changes and seasonal fluctuations in digital content. Golf course websites are often updated with seasonal offers or operational changes, which may affect the results if carried out at another time.
Second, the analysis deals only with what is visible about public websites with no access to user experience information, back-end functionality, or metrics on site visits. This restricts our understanding in terms of how effectively these digital features interact with actual users or can affect booking choices. The regional emphasis on Leicestershire, in enhancing analysis of the situation, restricts generalisation of findings to the large UK or global golf tourism market. Additionally, the low sample size, especially 9-hole courses (n=3) makes the patterns found for this category to be treated with caution.
Lastly, the study did not explore social media presence or mobile applications, which are emerging important aspects of any digital marketing strategy. Future studies could overcome such limitations by including user experience metrics, analyzing the integration of social media, and using longitudinal analyses to account for the changes in the digital marketing practices over time.
This study had an aim to answer the question: To what extent have ICT and e-commerce then been optimised to facilitate marketing environment and online presence of golf tourism destinations in Leicestershire, UK? The findings show that majority of the golf facilities in Leicestershire have created basic web presence although this differs to a significant degree based on the facility type and well-defined patterns are evident among different types of facilities.
The first research objective was the analysis and evaluation of the available websites of golf courses within Leicestershire according to those guidelines that have already been developed by others. The results confirm this finding of the differing levels of digital maturity on golf course sites within the region showing most sites providing basic information (85-93% implementation rate for core information) with fewer sites providing advanced interactive or transactional features. Only 21.4% of the analysed websites achieved the Transaction stage of the eMICA model, which means inadequate adoption of inclusive e-commerce capabilities.
The second aim of the study was to relate the results to the setting of Catalonia in Spain. The comparison showed that the Leicestershire golf courses are behind their Spanish counterparts when it comes to integration of e-commerce activities (53.6% vs 67.3%) and provision of multilingual features (21.4 % vs 38.2 %). This indicates that the Leicestershire destinations are not fully utilising their digital presence that appeal to international markets as compared to other European golf destinations.
The third objective was to address the implications of UK golf tourism market. Based on this finding, it is observed that there exists a digital divide of the smaller and the bigger facilities, whereby the size of the facility is well associated with digital maturity. This leads to a lop-sided competing environment where small venues might not be able to market themselves to the tech-savvy golf tourists. Additionally, the limited implementation of e-commerce features and multilingual options represents a missed opportunity to enhance the region’s appeal to both domestic and international visitors.
User Experience Research
It should be further explored in the future how golf tourists experience using golf course websites. This study concentrated on analysing those features of websites which are observable, it did not focus on analysing the effectiveness of such features in addressing users. A mixed-methods approach that is a combination of website analytics and qualitative user testing would yield key findings in terms of usability and effectiveness of various website features. This recommendation helps to overcome a major shortcoming of the present study that could not evaluate the actual user engagement and satisfaction.
Longitudinal Study of Digital Evolution
A longitudinal study following the changing digital face of golf course website would improve our understanding of digital marketing strategy formation in the sector immensely. The present cross-sectional study could only account for a snapshot of digital presence. a longitudinal stream would show patterns of innovation adoption and development of digital maturity. This may utilise the same WCA and eMICA frameworks at regular periods (e.g., yearly) to monitor change and factors that promote digital enhancement.
Social Media Integration & Mobile Applications
An exploration of the approach adopted by golf courses in incorporating their website presence with social media marketing and mobile applications would give a clearer idea of the digital marketing strategy of the golf courses. This study limited itself to website features, while modern digital marketing is more cross-platform more and more. Conducting content analysis of social media accounts in addition to analysing website would allow determining how well golf destinations are building coherent cross-platform marketing strategies. This would address the increasing role of social media in marketing tourism, an area which is not looked at in the current research but fundamental to studying contemporary digital engagements strategies.